Malay Words of Sanskrit Origin

Sanskrit: The Primordial Root of the Malay Language

Sanskrit stands as the world’s primary ancient language—a foundational source that flourished across Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe. While modern Western academia often classifies it within an "Indo-European" framework, authentic perspectives recognize Sanskrit as a native, primordial fountainhead that evolved independently within the Indian subcontinent before flowing outward to shape the global linguistic landscape.

From ancient precursors like Pali, Old Tamil, and Latin to modern tongues like Hindi, Malay, English, and Chinese, the legacy of Sanskrit remains an enduring thread in human speech.

The Sanskrit-Malay Connection

In the Malay world, Sanskrit is not merely a collection of loanwords but a native pillar of the language’s identity. This linguistic integration was primarily driven by two forces:

• The Transmission of Great Epics: The Malay tradition "lived" the ancient Vedic narratives, adapting them into localized masterpieces such as:
  • Hikayat Seri Rama: The Malay heart of the Ramayana.
  • Hikayat Perang Pandawa Jaya: The localized soul of the Mahabharata.
  • Hikayat Maharaja Boma: An ancient narrative deeply rooted in Vedic lore.

• Javanese Intermediaries: Many Sanskrit roots entered the Malay lexicon via Early Javanese, which shared the same foundational Sanskrit essence.

While Malay has later incorporated influences from Arabic, Persian, and European languages, its core remains deeply rooted in the wisdom of the Hindu Civilization.

In this page we will decipher the root of Malay words from Sanskrit. Later in the recent history, the Malay language has included many loan words directly from Arabic, Tamil, Hindi, English, and the Chinese.

A Repository of Root Words

The presence of Sanskrit in Malay is evident in the most essential aspects of human life. These words are not just synonyms; they are the original vessels of meaning:

Words such as putera, son; puteri, daughter; asmara, love; samudra, ocean; belantra, jungle; kenchana, gold; sukma, soul; and literally thousands of other words are all Skt. words, either in original or in modified form.

A

acara

"event; ceremony; formal proceeding; customary practice"
↳ Skt. ācāra — "conduct; custom; moral practice; social norm"
◆ root | ➜ semantic narrowing (ethics → event)

adakala

"sometimes; occasionally"
↳ Skt. kata-kāla — "at some time; for a period"
◆ compound | ➜ kāla (time) + kata (some)

agama

"religion; doctrine; belief system"
↳ Skt. agama — "that which is handed down; traditional doctrine; Vedic scripture"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

alpa

"negligent; careless; insignificant"
↳ Skt. alpa — "small; little; trifling; slight"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (small → careless)

aneka

"multifarious; varied; diverse; various"
↳ Skt. aneka — "not one; many; various; manifold"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

anekaragam

"variety show; diverse forms"
↳ Skt. aneka-rāgam — "many colors; diverse hues; various melodies"
◆ compound | ➜ aneka (various) + rāga (color/melody)

anekawarna

"multi-coloured; variegated"
↳ Skt. aneka-varṇa — "many colors; diverse castes; varied appearances"
◆ compound | ➜ aneka (various) + varna (color)

anggota

"limb; member; component; part"
↳ Skt. ańga-jāḥ — "born from the body; bodily limbs; constituent parts"
◆ compound | ➜ anga (body) + ja (born from)

angka

"numerical figure; digit; number"
↳ Skt. anka — "mark; numerical constant; digit; hook"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

angkara

"insolence; arrogance; cruelty; tyranny"
↳ Skt. aham-kara — "ego; pride; self-conceit; I-maker"
◆ compound | ➜ aham (I) + kara (maker) | ➜ semantic pejoration

angkasa

"space; sky; firmament; atmosphere"
↳ Skt. ākāśa — "sky; ether; space; void"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

angkasawan

"astronaut; space traveler"
↳ Skt. ākāśa-vān — "possessing the sky; one who travels in space"
◆ compound | ➜ ākāśa (sky) + vān (one who possesses)

angsa

"goose"
↳ Skt. haṃsa — "swan; goose; mythical bird of wisdom"
◆ root | ➜ phonetic shift (h→a) | ➜ semantic narrowing (swan→goose)

angsana

"Pterocarpus Indica (tree); Burmese rosewood"
↳ Skt. asana — "Terminalia tomentosa; Indian laurel"
◆ root | ➜ species shift (different tree species)

aniaya

"maltreatment; abuse; injustice; tyranny"
↳ Skt. anyayā — "unjustly; unlawfully; improperly; wrongfully"
◆ root | ➜ semantic pejoration

antara

"among; between; interval; during"
↳ Skt. antarā — "between; in the midst; in the meantime"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

antarabangsa

"international"
↳ Skt. antarā-vaṃśa — "between dynasties; among nations"
◆ compound | ➜ antarā (between) + vaṃśa (dynasty/lineage)

anugerah

"award; honor; grace; blessing; gift"
↳ Skt. anugraha — "favor; blessing; bestowal of grace; compassion"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

asa

"hope; expectation"
↳ Skt. āśa — "hope; expectation; desire"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

asmara

"love; passion; romantic affection"
↳ Skt. smara — "love; desire; recollection; the god of love"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (recollection → love)

asrama

"hostel; dormitory; hermitage; boarding house"
↳ Skt. āśrama — "religious hermitage; stage of life; dwelling"
◆ root | ➜ semantic secularization

atau

"or"
↳ Skt. athavā — "or; alternatively; either"
◆ root | ➜ grammatical function retention

B

baca

"to read"
↳ Skt. vācā — "speech; voice; words; utterance"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (speech → reading)

bagai

"as if; like; similar to"
↳ Skt. bhagā — "fortune; prosperity; good luck"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization (fortune → likeness)

bagi

"for; to give; to divide"
↳ Skt. bhāga — "portion; share; division; part"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

baginda

"Majesty; royal title"
↳ Skt. bhāgya — "fortune; good luck; destiny; prosperity"
◆ root | ➜ honorific usage

bahagia

"blissful; happy; fortunate; blessed"
↳ Skt. bhāgya — "good fortune; luck; destiny; prosperity"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bahagi

"to allot; distribute; divide"
↳ Skt. bhāga — "division; portion; share; part"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bahasa

"language"
↳ Skt. bhāṣā — "language; speech; spoken word"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bahawa

"that (conjunction); indeed"
↳ Skt. bhava — "becoming; state of being; existence"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization (existence → that)

bahaya

"danger; peril"
↳ Skt. bhaya — "fear; danger; terror"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bahtera

"ship; vessel"
↳ Skt. vahitra — "boat; ship; vessel; conveyance"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bahu

"arm; shoulder"
↳ Skt. bāhu — "arm; shoulder; forearm"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bahwasanya

"that (conjunction); indeed; verily"
↳ Skt. bhava — "state of being; existence"
◆ compound | ➜ bhava + emphatic suffix

baiduri

"opal; precious gem"
↳ Skt. vaidūrya — "cat's eye gem; beryl; precious stone"
◆ root | ➜ phonetic shift (v→b)

baja

"seed; fertilizer; steel"
↳ Skt. bīja — "seed; germ; origin; semen"
◆ root | ➜ semantic extension (seed → steel)

bakti

"devotion; homage; service; loyalty"
↳ Skt. bhakti — "devotion; love; worship; attachment"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bala

"disaster; calamity; affliction"
↳ Skt. bala — "strength; force; power; army"
◆ root | ➜ semantic reversal (strength → calamity)

bala tentera

"military force; armed forces"
↳ Skt. bala-tantra — "military science; army system; warfare"
◆ compound | ➜ bala (force) + tantra (system)

bangsa

"race; nation; ethnicity; lineage"
↳ Skt. vaṃśa — "dynasty; lineage; family; bamboo"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bangsawan

"noble; aristocracy; royalty"
↳ Skt. vaṃśa-vān — "one possessing lineage; noble; of good family"
◆ compound | ➜ vaṃśa (lineage) + vān (possessor)

basmi

"to eliminate; destroy; eradicate"
↳ Skt. bhasma — "ashes; reducing to ashes; destruction"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bayu

"wind"
↳ Skt. vāyu — "wind; air; the god of wind"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bela

"to defend; protect; care for"
↳ Skt. velā — "time; limit; boundary; death"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (boundary → defense)

belaka

"merely; all; entirely"
↳ Skt. bālaka — "young; childish; boy"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization (young → merely)

belanja

"expense; expenditure; shopping"
↳ Skt. valañja — "that which is spent; outlay; cost"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

belantara

"jungle; wilderness; forest"
↳ Skt. vanāntara — "interior of forest; deep wilderness"
◆ compound | ➜ vana (forest) + antara (interior)

belia

"youth; young people"
↳ Skt. balya — "childhood; youthful age; boyhood"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bencana

"calamity; disaster; misfortune"
↳ Skt. vañcana — "deception; fraud; cheating"
◆ root | ➜ semantic pejoration (deception → calamity)

benda

"object; thing; matter"
↳ Skt. bhāṇḍa — "goods; merchandise; vessel; utensil"
◆ root | ➜ semantic generalization

bendahara

"treasurer; prime minister (male)"
↳ Skt. bhāṇḍāgāra-a — "treasure house + masculine marker"
◆ compound | ➜ bhāṇḍa (goods) + āgāra (house) + a (male suffix)

bendahari

"treasurer (female)"
↳ Skt. bhāṇḍāgāra-i — "treasure house + feminine marker"
◆ compound | ➜ bhāṇḍa (goods) + āgāra (house) + i (female suffix)

berahi

"passionate love; lust"
↳ Skt. virahin — "separated from one's beloved; longing"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (separation → longing → lust)

berhala

"idol; image of a god; statue"
↳ Skt. bhaṭṭāra — "lord; venerable; master"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (lord → idol)

berita

"news; report; information"
↳ Skt. vārtta — "event; news; topic; conversation"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bestari

"clever; intelligent; wise"
↳ Skt. vistārin — "extending; spreading; diffusing"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (extending → wisdom)

biara

"monastery; convent"
↳ Skt. vihāra — "monastery; temple; place of recreation"
◆ root | ➜ semantic narrowing

biasa

"usual; ordinary; habitual; customary"
↳ Skt. abhyāsa — "practice; habit; repetition; training"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

biasiswa

"scholarship; financial aid"
↳ Skt. vyaya — "expense; cost; loss"
◆ compound | ➜ vyaya (expense) + iswa (suffix)

biayai

"expense; cost; to fund"
↳ Skt. vyaya — "expense; loss; outlay"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bicara

"to speak; discuss; talk"
↳ Skt. vicāra — "discussion; deliberation; examination"
◆ root | ➜ semantic narrowing (deliberation → speak)

bidadari

"nymph; fairy; celestial maiden"
↳ Skt. vidyādharī — "knowledge-holder; celestial nymph"
◆ compound | ➜ vidyā (knowledge) + dharī (female holder)

bidan

"midwife"
↳ Skt. vidvān — "wise; learned; knowledgeable"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (wise → midwife)

bijak

"clever; wise; intelligent"
↳ Skt. vicakṣaṇa — "clever; intelligent; wise; experienced"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bijaksana

"clever; wise; prudent"
↳ Skt. vicakṣaṇa — "clever; intelligent; wise; discerning"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

biji

"seed; grain; kernel"
↳ Skt. bīja — "seed; germ; origin"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bila

"when"
↳ Skt. velā — "time; period; moment"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization (time → when)

binasa

"destroyed; ruined; perished"
↳ Skt. vināśa — "destruction; ruin; annihilation"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bisa

"venom; poison; malice"
↳ Skt. viṣa — "poison; venom; toxin"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

budaya

"culture"
↳ Skt. bahudeya — "munificence; generosity; liberality"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (generosity → culture)

budi

"kindness; good deed; intelligence; wisdom"
↳ Skt. buddhi — "intellect; wisdom; understanding; intelligence"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

budiman

"wise person; sage"
↳ Skt. buddhimān — "possessing wisdom; intelligent; wise"
◆ compound | ➜ buddhi (wisdom) + mān (possessor)

bujangga

"scholar; learned person"
↳ Skt. bhujaṅga — "snake; serpent; learned man"
◆ root | ➜ semantic extension (serpent → scholar)

bukti

"proof; evidence"
↳ Skt. bhukti — "enjoyment; experience; possession"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (experience → evidence)

bumi

"earth; land; ground"
↳ Skt. bhūmi — "earth; ground; land; soil"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

bumiputera

"son of the soil; native; indigenous"
↳ Skt. bhūmi-putra — "earth-son; native; indigenous person"
◆ compound | ➜ bhūmi (earth) + putra (son)

C

cabai

"chilli pepper"
↳ Skt. cavya — "Piper chaba; long pepper"
◆ root | ➜ species shift (different pepper)

cahaya

"light; radiance; brightness"
↳ Skt. chāyā — "shade; shadow; image; reflection"
◆ root | ➜ semantic reversal (shade → light)

cakra

"disk; sphere; wheel"
↳ Skt. cakra — "wheel; discus; circle; cycle"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

cakrawala

"horizon"
↳ Skt. cakravāla — "mythical mountain range encircling the earth; horizon"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

candi

"ancient Hindu/Buddhist monument; temple"
↳ Skt. caṇḍī — "fierce goddess; Durga; temple of Durga"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

cara

"way; manner; method; style"
↳ Skt. ācāra — "conduct; behavior; practice; custom"
◆ root | ➜ semantic generalization

cari

"to search; look for"
↳ Skt. cārin — "moving; wandering; going about"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (wandering → searching)

catur

"chess"
↳ Skt. caturaṅga — "four-limbed army; chess"
◆ compound | ➜ catur (four) + anga (limbs)

cedera

"injured; wounded; harmed"
↳ Skt. chidra — "hole; opening; cleft; defect"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (hole → injury)

celaka

"mishap; misfortune; accident"
↳ Skt. chalaka — "deceptive; delusive; fraudulent"
◆ root | ➜ semantic pejoration

cempaka

"Magnolia champaca (tree)"
↳ Skt. campaka — "champaka tree; fragrant flower"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

cendala

"low caste; outcaste"
↳ Skt. caṇḍāla — "outcaste; lowest social group"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

cendana

"sandalwood"
↳ Skt. candana — "sandalwood; fragrant wood"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

cendera

"sweetheart; beloved"
↳ Skt. candra — "moon; shining"
◆ root | ➜ poetic metaphor (moon → beloved)

cenderawasih

"bird of paradise"
↳ Skt. candra-vāsin — "dwelling in the moon; celestial"
◆ compound | ➜ candra (moon) + vāsin (dwelling)

ceria

"cheerful; bright; pure"
↳ Skt. caryā — "practice; conduct; observance; behavior"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (conduct → cheerfulness)

cerita

"story; tale; narrative"
↳ Skt. carita — "conduct; deeds; adventures; history"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization (deeds → story)

cernah

"digested; assimilated"
↳ Skt. jīrṇa — "old; decayed; digested; consumed"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

cinta

"love; affection"
↳ Skt. cintā — "thought; care; anxiety; concern"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (concern → love)

cipta

"to create; invent; compose"
↳ Skt. citta — "thought; mind; consciousness"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (thought → creation)

cita-cita

"ideal; aspiration; ambition"
↳ Skt. citta — "thought; mind; heart"
◆ reduplication | ➜ intensification

citarasa

"taste; flavor; aesthetic sense"
↳ Skt. citta-rasa — "mind-taste; mental flavor"
◆ compound | ➜ citta (mind) + rasa (taste)

citra

"picture; image; depiction"
↳ Skt. citra — "picture; image; multi-colored; wonderful"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

cuci

"to wash; cleanse"
↳ Skt. śuci — "pure; clean; holy"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (pure → to purify)

cuka

"vinegar"
↳ Skt. cukra — "vinegar; sour liquid"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

curiga

"suspicion; doubt; to suspect"
↳ Skt. churikā — "knife; dagger; weapon"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (knife → suspicion)

D

dadih

"curd; yogurt"
↳ Skt. dadhi — "curd; thickened milk; yogurt"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

dahaga

"thirst"
↳ Skt. dāha — "burning; thirst; heat"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

dana

"gift; donation; fund"
↳ Skt. dāna — "giving; gift; donation; charity"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

daru

"Urandra corniculata (tree)"
↳ Skt. dāru — "wood; timber; tree"
◆ root | ➜ species specification

daya

"power; capacity; ability"
↳ Skt. dayā — "mercy; compassion; kindness"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (mercy → power)

delima

"pomegranate"
↳ Skt. dālima — "pomegranate"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

denda

"fine; penalty"
↳ Skt. daṇḍa — "punishment; fine; rod; staff"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

dendam

"resentment; revenge"
↳ Skt. daṇḍa — "punishment; penalty"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (punishment → resentment)

derhaka

"traitor; treason; rebellious"
↳ Skt. drohaka — "traitor; treacherous; malicious"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

derita

"to suffer; endure"
↳ Skt. dhārita — "held; borne; endured; supported"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

derma

"donation; alms; charity"
↳ Skt. dharma — "duty; righteousness; religious merit"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (duty → charity)

dermaga

"pier; wharf; platform"
↳ Skt. mārga — "road; path; way"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (road → wharf)

desa

"village; countryside"
↳ Skt. deśa — "place; country; region; land"
◆ root | ➜ semantic narrowing

dewa

"deity; god"
↳ Skt. deva — "god; divine being"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

dewasa

"adult; grown-up; time"
↳ Skt. divasa — "day; daytime"
◆ root | ➜ semantic extension (day → adult)

dewi

"goddess"
↳ Skt. devī — "goddess; divine female"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

dosa

"sin"
↳ Skt. doṣa — "fault; defect; sin; offense"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

duka

"sorrow; sadness; grief"
↳ Skt. duḥkha — "suffering; pain; unhappiness"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

dukacita

"sorrow; grief; sadness"
↳ Skt. duḥkha-citta — "suffering-mind; sorrowful heart"
◆ compound | ➜ duḥkha (suffering) + citta (mind)

dusta

"lie; falsehood"
↳ Skt. duṣṭa — "wicked; evil; bad; corrupt"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

duta

"envoy; ambassador; messenger"
↳ Skt. dūta — "messenger; envoy; ambassador"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

dwi

"two; double"
↳ Skt. dvi — "two; both"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

dwibahasa

"bilingual"
↳ Skt. dvi-bhāṣā — "two languages"
◆ compound | ➜ dvi (two) + bhāṣā (language)

E

erti

"meaning; sense; significance"
↳ Skt. artha — "meaning; wealth; purpose; object"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

esa

"one; only; unique"
↳ Skt. īśa — "lord; master; ruler"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (lord → one)

G

gajah

"elephant"
↳ Skt. gaja — "elephant"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

gala

"resin; gum"
↳ Skt. gala — "resin; gum; juice"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

ganda

"double; fold; multiple"
↳ Skt. ganda — "cheek; side; part"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (cheek → double)

gangsa

"bronze"
↳ Skt. kaṃsa — "bell-metal; brass; bronze"
◆ root | ➜ phonetic shift (k→g)

gembala

"shepherd; herder"
↳ Skt. gopāla — "cowherd; protector of cows"
◆ compound | ➜ go (cow) + pāla (protector)

gembira

"cheerful; happy; joyous"
↳ Skt. gambhīra — "profound; deep; serious"
◆ root | ➜ semantic reversal (serious → cheerful)

gempa

"earthquake"
↳ Skt. kampa — "tremor; shaking; vibration"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

gendala

"obstacle; hindrance"
↳ Skt. kandala — "portent; omen; impediment"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

gergaji

"saw"
↳ Skt. karakaca — "saw; cutting tool"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

gerhana

"eclipse"
↳ Skt. grahaṇa — "seizing; eclipse; taking"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

gua

"cave"
↳ Skt. guhā — "cave; cavern; secret place"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

gula

"sugar"
↳ Skt. guḍa — "molasses; dry sugar; sweet"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

guna

"to use; utilize; purpose"
↳ Skt. guṇa — "quality; attribute; use; merit"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

guru

"teacher; master"
↳ Skt. guru — "teacher; spiritual master; venerable"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

H

harga

"price; value; worth"
↳ Skt. argha — "value; price; worth"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

harim

"harim"
↳ Skt. hari — "Lord Vishnu; lion; tawny"
◆ root | ➜ phonetic variation

harta

"property; wealth; asset"
↳ Skt. artha — "wealth; property; meaning; purpose"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

hartawan

"rich person; wealthy"
↳ Skt. artha-vān — "possessing wealth; wealthy"
◆ compound | ➜ artha (wealth) + vān (possessor)

hina

"low; despicable; humble"
↳ Skt. hīna — "deprived; inferior; low; deficient"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

I

irama

"rhythm; tempo"
↳ Skt. virama — "pause; cessation; stop"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (pause → rhythm)

istana

"palace"
↳ Skt. āsthāna — "place; court; residence; audience hall"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

isteri

"wife"
↳ Skt. strī — "woman; wife; female"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

istimewa

"special; particular"
↳ Skt. astam eva — "thus be it; indeed"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization

J

jaga

"to guard; watch; awake"
↳ Skt. jāgarti — "to be awake; watchful; vigilant"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

jala

"casting net"
↳ Skt. jāla — "net; web; mesh; snare"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

jambu

"guava; rose apple"
↳ Skt. jambū — "rose apple tree; jamun"
◆ root | ➜ species extension

jampi

"incantation; magic spell"
↳ Skt. japa — "muttered prayer; incantation; mantra"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

janda

"widow"
↳ Skt. muṇḍā — "shaven-headed woman; widow"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

jasa

"merit; service; contribution"
↳ Skt. yasas — "glory; fame; honor; merit"
◆ root | ➜ phonetic shift (y→j)

jati

"teak tree"
↳ Skt. jāti — "jasmine; species; kind"
◆ root | ➜ species shift (jasmine → teak)

jaya

"victory; victorious"
↳ Skt. jaya — "victory; triumph; conquest"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

jelata

"common people; populace"
↳ Skt. janatā — "people; community; populace"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

jelita

"lovely; beautiful; charming"
↳ Skt. lalita — "lovely; elegant; charming; playful"
◆ root | ➜ phonetic shift (l→j)

jelma

"to incarnate; materialize; appear"
↳ Skt. janman — "birth; incarnation; origin"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

jentera

"machinery; machine"
↳ Skt. yantra — "instrument; machine; device"
◆ root | ➜ phonetic shift (y→j)

jiva

"living being; soul"
↳ Skt. jīva — "living being; soul; life"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

juta

"million"
↳ Skt. ayuta — "ten thousand; myriad"
◆ root | ➜ numerical inflation

jutawan

"millionaire; very rich"
↳ Skt. ayuta-vān — "possessing ten thousand; wealthy"
◆ compound | ➜ ayuta (myriad) + vān (possessor)

K

kaca

"glass"
↳ Skt. kāca — "glass; crystal"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kala

"time; period; era"
↳ Skt. kāla — "time; season; period; death"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

kalau

"if"
↳ Skt. kāla — "time"
◆ grammaticalization (time → conditional)

kali

"times; multiply; occasion"
↳ Skt. kali — "number; enumeration"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kanta

"lens"
↳ Skt. kānta — "sun-crystal; lens; beloved"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

kapas

"cotton"
↳ Skt. karpāsa — "cotton; cotton plant"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

karma

"karma; fate; destiny"
↳ Skt. karman — "action; deed; work; fate"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

karya

"literary work; masterpiece"
↳ Skt. kārya — "work; deed; accomplishment"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kasturi

"musk; musk flower"
↳ Skt. kastūrī — "musk; fragrant substance"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kata

"word; to say"
↳ Skt. kathā — "story; speech; conversation"
◆ root | ➜ semantic generalization

kati

"hundred thousand"
↳ Skt. koṭi — "ten million; crore"
◆ root | ➜ numerical shift

kelahi

"quarrel; dispute"
↳ Skt. kalaha — "quarrel; dispute; conflict"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

Keling

"Indian (person)"
↳ Skt. kaliṅga — "inhabitant of Kalinga (ancient Indian kingdom)"
◆ root | ➜ geographical designation

keluarga

"family"
↳ Skt. kula-varga — "family category; lineage group"
◆ compound | ➜ kula (family) + varga (category)

kemboja

"Plumeria (tree)"
↳ Skt. kamboja — "red kamala tree; Kamboja region"
◆ root | ➜ species shift

kendi

"water-pitcher; jar"
↳ Skt. kuṇḍī — "pot; pitcher; water vessel"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kepala

"head"
↳ Skt. kapāla — "skull; cranium; head"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kerana

"because; for"
↳ Skt. kāraṇa — "cause; reason; purpose"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization

keranda

"coffin"
↳ Skt. karaṇḍa — "basket; box; container"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

kerja

"work; to work"
↳ Skt. kārya — "work; task; deed"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kesatria

"warrior; knight"
↳ Skt. kṣatriya — "warrior caste; noble; ruler"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

ketika

"moment; when"
↳ Skt. ghaṭikā — "hour; time period; moment"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kian

"as much as; so much"
↳ Skt. kiyant — "how much? how many?"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization

kini

"now; currently"
↳ Skt. kalī — "present age; current era"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

kosakata

"vocabulary"
↳ Skt. kośa — "lexicon; dictionary; treasury"
◆ compound | ➜ kośa (lexicon) + kata (word)

kota

"town; city"
↳ Skt. koṭa — "fortress; stronghold; town"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kumba

"pot; jar"
↳ Skt. kumbha — "jar; pot; pitcher"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kunci

"key"
↳ Skt. kuñcikā — "key; lock"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kurnia

"mercy; gift; blessing"
↳ Skt. karuṇā — "compassion; mercy; pity"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

kusta

"leprosy"
↳ Skt. kuṣṭha — "leprosy; skin disease"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

L

labu

"pumpkin; gourd"
↳ Skt. ālābu — "pumpkin; bottle gourd"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

laksa

"ten thousand; a type of noodle"
↳ Skt. lakṣa — "one hundred thousand; myriad"
◆ root | ➜ numerical shift

laksamana

"admiral"
↳ Skt. lakṣmaṇa — "Rama's brother; fortunate; marked"
◆ root | ➜ honorific title adoption

lawang

"cinnamon"
↳ Skt. lavaṅga — "clove; spice"
◆ root | ➜ species shift (clove → cinnamon)

lela

"smart; elegant; playful"
↳ Skt. līlā — "play; sport; divine play"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

lena

"soundly asleep"
↳ Skt. līna — "absorbed; dissolved; vanished"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

lencana

"badge; emblem"
↳ Skt. lāñchana — "mark; sign; distinguishing mark"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

loba

"greedy"
↳ Skt. lobha — "greed; avarice; covetousness"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

loka

"world; realm"
↳ Skt. loka — "world; realm; sphere"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

M

madu

"honey; co-wife"
↳ Skt. madhu — "honey; sweet; nectar"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

maha

"great"
↳ Skt. mahā — "great; mighty; supreme"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

mahadewa

"Supreme God"
↳ Skt. mahā-deva — "great god; Supreme Lord"
◆ compound | ➜ mahā (great) + deva (god)

mahadewi

"supreme goddess"
↳ Skt. mahā-devī — "great goddess; supreme female deity"
◆ compound | ➜ mahā (great) + devī (goddess)

mahaesa

"almighty"
↳ Skt. maheśa — "great lord; supreme ruler"
◆ compound | ➜ mahā (great) + īśa (lord)

mahaguru

"professor; great teacher"
↳ Skt. mahā-guru — "great teacher; revered master"
◆ compound | ➜ mahā (great) + guru (teacher)

maharaja

"king; emperor"
↳ Skt. mahārāja — "great king; emperor"
◆ compound | ➜ mahā (great) + rāja (king)

maharajalela

"rage; wrath"
↳ Skt. mahārāja-līlā — "king's play; royal sport; caprice"
◆ compound | ➜ mahārāja (great king) + līlā (play)

maharani

"queen"
↳ Skt. mahārāṇī — "great queen; empress"
◆ compound | ➜ mahā (great) + rāṇī (queen)

mahasiswa

"university student (male)"
↳ Skt. mahā-śiṣya — "great student; advanced pupil"
◆ compound | ➜ mahā (great) + śiṣya (student)

mahasiswi

"university student (female)"
↳ Skt. mahā-śiṣyā — "great student (female)"
◆ compound | ➜ mahā (great) + śiṣyā (female student)

mahkota

"crown"
↳ Skt. mukuṭa — "crown; diadem; crest"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

mala

"stain; dirt; impurity"
↳ Skt. mala — "dirt; impurity; stain; sin"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

malapetaka

"calamity; disaster"
↳ Skt. mala-pātaka — "impurity-sin; great offense"
◆ compound | ➜ mala (impurity) + pātaka (sin)

manakala

"when; whereas"
↳ Skt. māna-kāla — "honor-time; while"
◆ compound | ➜ māna (honor) + kāla (time)

mani

"semen; sperm"
↳ Skt. maṇi — "jewel; gem; pearl"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (jewel → semen)

manik

"bead; jewel"
↳ Skt. maṇi — "jewel; gem; pearl"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

mantera

"mantra; incantation"
↳ Skt. mantra — "sacred utterance; incantation; hymn"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

manusia

"human being; mankind"
↳ Skt. manuṣya — "human being; mankind"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

mara

"danger; threat; peril"
↳ Skt. māra — "death; destruction; killing"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (death → danger)

masa

"time; period"
↳ Skt. māsa — "month; time"
◆ root | ➜ semantic generalization

masakini

"contemporary; modern"
↳ Skt. māsa + kini — "month + now"
◆ compound | ➜ semantic extension

maya

"illusion; unreality"
↳ Skt. māyā — "illusion; magic; unreality"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

melaka

"Phyllanthos emblica (tree)"
↳ Skt. malaka — "various plants; myrobalan"
◆ root | ➜ species specification

melati

"jasmine"
↳ Skt. mālatī — "jasmine; fragrant flower"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

menteri

"minister"
↳ Skt. mantrin — "minister; counselor; adviser"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

merdeka

"free; independent"
↳ Skt. maharddhika — "prosperous; independent; powerful"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

merdu

"melodious; sweet sounding"
↳ Skt. madhu — "honey; sweet; pleasant"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

merpati

"pigeon; dove"
↳ Skt. parāpātin — "flying far; bird"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

mesra

"friendly; amicable; close"
↳ Skt. miśra — "mixed; mingled; blended"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (mixed → friendly)

mestika

"jewel; bezoar"
↳ Skt. sphaṭika — "crystal; quartz"
◆ root | ➜ phonetic shift (sph→m)

muka

"face; front"
↳ Skt. mukha — "face; mouth; front"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

mula

"beginning; origin"
↳ Skt. mūla — "root; origin; foundation"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

mulai

"to begin; starting from"
↳ Skt. mūla — "root; beginning"
◆ root | ➜ verbalization

mulia

"noble; excellent; honorable"
↳ Skt. mūlya — "value; worth; price"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (value → nobility)

murka

"angry (royal anger)"
↳ Skt. mūrkha — "fool; stupid; ignorant"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (fool → anger)

mutiara

"pearl"
↳ Skt. muktāhāra — "string of pearls; pearl necklace"
◆ compound | ➜ muktā (pearl) + hāra (garland)

N

nada

"tone; sound"
↳ Skt. nāda — "sound; tone; vibration"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

nadi

"pulse"
↳ Skt. nāḍī — "vein; artery; pulse"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

naga

"dragon; mythical serpent"
↳ Skt. nāga — "serpent; cobra; mythical snake"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

nama

"name"
↳ Skt. nāman — "name; identity"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

negara

"state; country; nation"
↳ Skt. nagara — "city; town; state"
◆ root | ➜ semantic generalization

negeri

"city; homeland"
↳ Skt. nagarī — "city; town"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

neraca

"balance; scales"
↳ Skt. nārāca — "scale; balance"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

neraka

"hell"
↳ Skt. naraka — "hell; infernal region"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

niaga

"trade; commerce"
↳ Skt. vāṇija — "merchant; trader; commerce"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

nila

"indigo"
↳ Skt. nīla — "dark blue; indigo; sapphire"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

nilam

"sapphire"
↳ Skt. nīla — "blue; sapphire"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

nira

"water"
↳ Skt. nīra — "water; juice"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

nobat

"royal music ensemble"
↳ Skt. nava-vāddha — "nine instruments; nine types"
◆ compound | ➜ nava (nine) + vādya (instrument)

nyana

"to suppose; think"
↳ Skt. jñāna — "knowledge; wisdom; understanding"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (knowledge → suppose)

nyata

"clear; evident; real"
↳ Skt. niyata — "fixed; certain; sure"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

P

pada

"at; to; upon"
↳ Skt. pāda — "foot; step; quarter"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization (foot → locative)

paduka

"Your Majesty"
↳ Skt. pādukā — "sandal; footprint; honorific"
◆ root | ➜ honorific metonymy

pahala

"merit; reward"
↳ Skt. phala — "fruit; result; reward"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

pakma

"Rafflesia (flower)"
↳ Skt. pakṣma — "eyelash; filament"
◆ root | ➜ metaphorical extension

paksa

"force; compel"
↳ Skt. pakṣa — "wing; side; party; force"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

panca

"five"
↳ Skt. pañca — "five"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

pancaragam

"diverse; variety show"
↳ Skt. pañca-rāga — "five melodies; diverse"
◆ compound | ➜ pañca (five) + rāga (melody)

pandai

"clever; skilled"
↳ Skt. paṇḍita — "learned; wise; scholar"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

papa

"miserable; wretched"
↳ Skt. pāpa — "evil; sin; wicked"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (sin → miserable)

para

"parameter; far"
↳ Skt. para — "far; distant; supreme"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

pati

"essence; extract"
↳ Skt. pati — "to imbibe; absorb"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

pelihara

"to look after; maintain"
↳ Skt. parihāra — "avoidance; protection; care"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

pencuri

"thief"
↳ Skt. cora — "thief; robber"
◆ affixed | ➜ peN- prefix + cora

pendeta

"scholar; priest"
↳ Skt. paṇḍita — "scholar; learned man"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

penjara

"jail; prison"
↳ Skt. pañjara — "cage; prison; skeleton"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

percaya

"to trust; believe"
↳ Skt. pratyaya — "faith; trust; proof; conviction"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

perdana

"prime; first"
↳ Skt. pradhāna — "primary; chief; principal"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

perdana menteri

"prime minister"
↳ Skt. pradhāna-mantrin — "chief minister; prime minister"
◆ compound | ➜ pradhāna (chief) + mantrin (minister)

peribahasa

"proverb; saying"
↳ Skt. pari-bhāṣā — "rule; maxim; linguistic convention"
◆ compound | ➜ pari (around) + bhāṣā (speech)

peribumi

"indigenous; native"
↳ Skt. pari-bhūmi — "around the earth; native"
◆ compound | ➜ pari (around) + bhūmi (earth)

periksa

"to examine; inspect"
↳ Skt. parīkṣā — "examination; test; trial"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

peristiwa

"event; incident"
↳ Skt. prastāva — "occasion; topic; preamble"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

perkara

"affair; matter"
↳ Skt. prakāra — "manner; kind; way"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (manner → affair)

perkasa

"strong; powerful"
↳ Skt. prakāśa — "manifest; splendid; visible"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (splendid → powerful)

pertama

"first"
↳ Skt. prathama — "first; foremost"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

petaka

"misfortune; disaster"
↳ Skt. pātaka — "sin; crime; offense"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

petala

"layer; stratum"
↳ Skt. pātāla — "underworld; nether region"
◆ root | ➜ semantic generalization

prakata

"foreword; introduction"
↳ Skt. prakathā — "proclamation; announcement"
◆ compound | ➜ pra (forth) + kathā (story)

prasangka

"prejudice; bias"
↳ Skt. pra-śaṅkā — "presumption; suspicion"
◆ compound | ➜ pra (before) + śaṅkā (doubt)

puasa

"to fast"
↳ Skt. upavāsa — "fasting; abstinence"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

puja

"to worship"
↳ Skt. pūjā — "worship; veneration; honor"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

puji

"to praise"
↳ Skt. pūjā — "worship; reverence"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

pura

"city; town"
↳ Skt. pura — "city; town; fortress"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

purba

"ancient; old"
↳ Skt. pūrva — "former; earlier; east"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

purbakala

"ancient times"
↳ Skt. pūrva-kāla — "former time; antiquity"
◆ compound | ➜ pūrva (former) + kāla (time)

purnama

"full moon"
↳ Skt. pūrṇimā — "full moon; full moon night"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

puspa

"flower"
↳ Skt. puṣpa — "flower; blossom"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

pustaka

"book"
↳ Skt. pustaka — "book; manuscript"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

putera

"prince; son"
↳ Skt. putra — "son; child"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

puteri

"princess; daughter"
↳ Skt. putrī — "daughter; princess"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

R

raga

"basket; rattan ball; passion"
↳ Skt. rāga — "color; passion; melody"
◆ root | ➜ semantic divergence

ragam

"kind; variety; color"
↳ Skt. rāga — "color; melody"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

rahsia

"secret; mystery"
↳ Skt. rahasya — "secret; mysterious"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

raja

"king; ruler"
↳ Skt. rājan — "king; sovereign"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

rani

"queen"
↳ Skt. rāṇī — "queen; consort"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

raksasa

"giant; demon"
↳ Skt. rākṣasa — "demon; evil spirit; man-eater"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

rana

"suffering; battlefield"
↳ Skt. raṇa — "battle; war"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (battle → suffering)

rasa

"taste; feeling; emotion"
↳ Skt. rasa — "taste; essence; sentiment"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

reka

"to invent; design"
↳ Skt. rekhā — "line; sketch; drawing"
◆ root | ➜ semantic extension

rencana

"plan; design"
↳ Skt. racanā — "arrangement; composition; design"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

restu

"blessing"
↳ Skt. astu — "let it be; may it be so"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization

roma

"fine body hair"
↳ Skt. roman — "body hair; down"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

rosak

"broken; spoiled"
↳ Skt. rūkṣa — "rough; coarse; harsh"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (rough → broken)

rugi

"loss; deficit"
↳ Skt. roga — "disease; illness"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (disease → loss)

rupa

"form; shape; appearance"
↳ Skt. rūpa — "form; shape; beauty"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

S

sa

"with; together"
↳ Skt. sa — "with; along with; accompanied by"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sabda

"word; command; speech"
↳ Skt. śabda — "sound; word; speech"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sahaja

"natural; simple"
↳ Skt. sahaja — "born together; natural; innate"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

saja

"only; merely"
↳ Skt. sahaja — "natural; simple"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization

saksama

"just; impartial; fair"
↳ Skt. sākṣāt-sama — "directly equal; impartial"
◆ compound | ➜ sākṣāt (directly) + sama (equal)

saksi

"witness"
↳ Skt. sākṣin — "witness; observer"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sakti

"power; energy"
↳ Skt. śakti — "power; energy; strength"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sama

"same; equal"
↳ Skt. sama — "equal; same; level"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

samudra

"ocean; sea"
↳ Skt. samudra — "ocean; sea; gathering of waters"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sangka

"to suppose; presume"
↳ Skt. śaṅkā — "doubt; fear; suspicion"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (doubt → suppose)

sangsi

"to doubt; suspicious"
↳ Skt. śaṅkin — "doubting; suspicious"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sari

"essence; core"
↳ Skt. sāra — "essence; core; best part"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sarjana

"scholar; graduate"
↳ Skt. sajjana — "good person; virtuous; wise"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sastera

"literature"
↳ Skt. śāstra — "scripture; treatise; science"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

sastra

"literature; writing"
↳ Skt. śāstra — "scripture; handbook"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

satria

"knight; warrior"
↳ Skt. kṣatriya — "warrior; member of warrior caste"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

saudara

"brother; relative"
↳ Skt. sahodara — "co-uterine; brother; sibling"
◆ compound | ➜ saha (together) + udara (womb)

saudari

"sister; female relative"
↳ Skt. sahodarī — "sister; female sibling"
◆ compound | ➜ saha (together) + udara (womb) + ī (feminine)

saya

"I (polite)"
↳ Skt. svayam — "self; oneself; personally"
◆ root | ➜ pronoun usage

sahabat

"friend; companion"
↳ Skt. sahabhāva — "same state; companionship"
◆ compound | ➜ saha (together) + bhāva (state)

sebentar

"a moment; briefly"
↳ Skt. avantara — "interval; intermediate"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sederhana

"simple; modest"
↳ Skt. sādhāraṇa — "common; ordinary; general"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sedaya

"to the extent possible"
↳ Skt. sa-daya — "with mercy; compassionate"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization

sedia

"ready; prepared"
↳ Skt. sajja — "ready; equipped; prepared"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sediakala

"old times; immemorial"
↳ Skt. sajja-kāla — "prepared-time; fixed period"
◆ compound | ➜ sajja (ready) + kāla (time)

segala

"all; whole"
↳ Skt. sakala — "whole; all; entire"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

segera

"immediately; quick"
↳ Skt. śīghra — "fast; quick; speedy"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sejagat

"universal; all"
↳ Skt. sakala-jagat — "all-world; universe"
◆ compound | ➜ sakala (all) + jagat (world)

sejahtera

"prosperous; peaceful"
↳ Skt. siddhatara — "more accomplished; perfect"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sekali

"once; very"
↳ Skt. sakali — "at once; together"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

seksa

"to torture; punish"
↳ Skt. śikṣā — "punishment; instruction"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

selenggara

"to maintain; organize"
↳ Skt. sālaṅkāra — "adorned; decorated"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (adorn → maintain)

selesma

"flu; cold"
↳ Skt. śleṣman — "mucus; phlegm"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

seloka

"phrase; verse"
↳ Skt. śloka — "verse; hymn; stanza"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

semadi

"meditation; concentration"
↳ Skt. samādhi — "deep meditation; absorption"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

semasa

"during; at the time"
↳ Skt. samāsa — "together; during"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization

sementara

"temporary; while"
↳ Skt. samanantara — "immediately after; following"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

semesta

"all; entire"
↳ Skt. samasta — "whole; entire; combined"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sempurna

"perfect; complete"
↳ Skt. sampūrṇa — "complete; perfect; full"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

semua

"all"
↳ Skt. samūha — "multitude; collection; group"
◆ root | ➜ semantic generalization

semuka

"same face; similar"
↳ Skt. sa-mukha — "with face; facing"
◆ compound | ➜ sa (with) + mukha (face)

semula

"original; again"
↳ Skt. sa-mūla — "with root; original"
◆ compound | ➜ sa (with) + mūla (root)

sendi

"joint"
↳ Skt. sandhi — "joint; union; connection"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sengketa

"dispute; conflict"
↳ Skt. saṅketa — "agreement; convention"
◆ root | ➜ semantic reversal (agreement → dispute)

sengsara

"suffering; miserable"
↳ Skt. saṃsāra — "cycle of rebirth; worldly existence"
◆ root | ➜ semantic pejoration

senjata

"weapon"
↳ Skt. saṃyatta — "ready for battle; armed"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

sentiasa

"always"
↳ Skt. nityasas — "always; constantly"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sentosa

"peaceful; tranquil"
↳ Skt. santoṣa — "contentment; satisfaction"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

seragam

"uniform"
↳ Skt. sa-rāga — "with color; colored alike"
◆ compound | ➜ sa (with) + rāga (color)

serangga

"insect"
↳ Skt. saraṅga — "variegated; insect"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

serasi

"harmonious; compatible"
↳ Skt. sa-rāśi — "with heap; united"
◆ compound | ➜ sa (with) + rāśi (heap)

serba

"all; multi-"
↳ Skt. sarva — "all; every; whole"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

serbaneka

"various"
↳ Skt. sarva-aneka — "all-various; manifold"
◆ compound | ➜ sarva (all) + aneka (various)

seri

"splendor; radiance"
↳ Skt. śrī — "fortune; glory; beauty"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

serigala

"wolf"
↳ Skt. sṛgāla — "jackal; fox"
◆ root | ➜ species shift (jackal → wolf)

seroja

"lotus"
↳ Skt. saroja — "lotus; born from a lake"
◆ compound | ➜ sara (lake) + ja (born)

serta

"with; and"
↳ Skt. sārtha — "company; caravan"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization

seteru

"enemy"
↳ Skt. śatru — "enemy; foe"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

setia

"loyal; faithful"
↳ Skt. satya — "truth; reality; faithful"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sewa

"rent; hire"
↳ Skt. sevā — "service; attendance"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (service → rent)

sila

"moral principle; ethics"
↳ Skt. śīla — "virtue; character; conduct"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

singa

"lion"
↳ Skt. siṃha — "lion"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

singgasana

"throne"
↳ Skt. siṃhāsana — "lion throne; royal seat"
◆ compound | ➜ siṃha (lion) + āsana (seat)

siswa

"student; pupil"
↳ Skt. śiṣya — "student; disciple"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

stupa

"stupa; Buddhist monument"
↳ Skt. stūpa — "stupa; Buddhist reliquary mound"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

suami

"husband"
↳ Skt. svāmin — "lord; master; husband"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

suara

"voice; sound"
↳ Skt. svara — "sound; voice; tone"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

suasana

"atmosphere; ambiance"
↳ Skt. su-āsana — "good seat; pleasant place"
◆ compound | ➜ su (good) + āsana (seat)

suci

"sacred; pure"
↳ Skt. śuci — "pure; clean; holy"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sudah

"already; finished"
↳ Skt. śuddha — "pure; cleared; perfected"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (pure → finished)

sudi

"willing; well-disposed"
↳ Skt. śuddhi — "purification; acquittal"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (purification → willingness)

suka

"to like; enjoy; happiness"
↳ Skt. sukha — "happiness; pleasure; ease"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

sukacita

"glad; happy"
↳ Skt. sukha-citta — "happy-mind; joyful heart"
◆ compound | ➜ sukha (happiness) + citta (mind)

sukarela

"voluntary"
↳ Skt. sukha-relā — "happiness-flow; willing"
◆ compound | ➜ sukha (happiness) + relā (wave)

sukaria

"happy"
↳ Skt. sukha-ria — "happiness-splendor"
◆ compound | ➜ sukha (happiness) + ria (splendor)

sunyi

"deserted; quiet"
↳ Skt. śūnya — "empty; void; zero"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

supaya

"in order that; so that"
↳ Skt. upāya — "means; method; way"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization

surga

"heaven"
↳ Skt. svarga — "heaven; celestial realm"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

suria

"sun"
↳ Skt. sūrya — "sun; solar deity"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

susila

"virtuous; well-mannered"
↳ Skt. su-śīla — "good conduct; virtuous"
◆ compound | ➜ su (good) + śīla (character)

sutera

"silk"
↳ Skt. sūtra — "thread; string; silk"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

swasta

"private (sector)"
↳ Skt. sva-stha — "self-reliant; independent"
◆ compound | ➜ sva (self) + stha (standing)

T

tabik

"greeting; goodbye"
↳ Skt. kṣāntavya — "to be forgiven; pardon"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (pardon → greeting)

tadi

"a moment ago"
↳ Skt. tadā — "at that time; then"
◆ root | ➜ grammaticalization

tala

"well-tuned; harmonious"
↳ Skt. tāla — "musical time; rhythm"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

tapa

"asceticism; meditation"
↳ Skt. tapas — "austerity; penance; heat"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

tata

"system; order; arrangement"
↳ Skt. tata — "order; arrangement; system"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

tatabahasa

"grammar"
↳ Skt. tata-bhāṣā — "arranged language; grammar"
◆ compound | ➜ tata (order) + bhāṣā (language)

tatkala

"at that time"
↳ Skt. tat-kāla — "that-time; then"
◆ compound | ➜ tat (that) + kāla (time)

teka

"to guess; conjecture"
↳ Skt. tarka — "conjecture; reasoning"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

telaga

"pond; lake"
↳ Skt. taḍāga — "pond; tank; lake"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

tembaga

"copper"
↳ Skt. tāmra — "copper; red"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

tentera

"army; military"
↳ Skt. tantra — "system; army; science"
◆ root | ➜ semantic specialization

tetapi

"but; yet; however"
↳ Skt. tathā-api — "even so; nevertheless"
◆ compound | ➜ tathā (so) + api (even)

topi

"hat"
↳ Skt. ṭopī — "hat; cap"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

U

ucap

"to say; utter"
↳ Skt. uccāra — "utterance; pronunciation"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

udara

"air"
↳ Skt. udara — "air; atmosphere"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

umpama

"example; like"
↳ Skt. upamā — "comparison; simile"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

upacara

"ceremony; ritual"
↳ Skt. upacāra — "ceremony; service; offering"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

upaya

"means; effort"
↳ Skt. upāya — "means; method; approach"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

usaha

"effort; endeavor"
↳ Skt. utsāha — "enthusiasm; effort; energy"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

usia

"age; lifespan"
↳ Skt. āyuṣya — "longevity; lifespan"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

utama

"main; chief; primary"
↳ Skt. uttama — "best; supreme; highest"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

utara

"north"
↳ Skt. uttara — "north; upper; later"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

utas

"to explain; elaborate"
↳ Skt. uttara — "reply; answer"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (reply → explain)

W

wacana

"discussion; discourse"
↳ Skt. vacana — "speech; statement; word"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

wangsa

"dynasty; lineage"
↳ Skt. vaṃśa — "lineage; family; bamboo"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

wanita

"woman; lady"
↳ Skt. vanitā — "woman; lady"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

warganegara

"citizen"
↳ Skt. varga-nagara — "member of state; citizen"
◆ compound | ➜ varga (group) + nagara (state)

waris

"heir; inheritor"
↳ Skt. vāris — "heir; successor"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

warna

"color"
↳ Skt. varṇa — "color; caste; letter"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

warta

"news; report"
↳ Skt. vārtta — "news; event; information"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

wartawan

"journalist"
↳ Skt. vārtta-vān — "one possessing news; reporter"
◆ compound | ➜ vārtta (news) + vān (possessor)

wasangka

"suspicion; doubt"
↳ Skt. vaśaṅkā — "doubt; suspicion"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

wibawa

"authority; prestige"
↳ Skt. vibhava — "power; wealth; glory"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

wicara

"speech; discussion"
↳ Skt. vicāra — "discussion; deliberation"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

wijaya

"victory"
↳ Skt. vijaya — "victory; triumph"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

wira

"hero; warrior"
↳ Skt. vīra — "hero; brave man; warrior"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

wisma

"building; hostel"
↳ Skt. veśman — "dwelling; house; abode"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

Y

yayasan

"foundation; institution"
↳ Skt. yājana — "sacrifice; offering; endowment"
◆ root | ➜ semantic shift (sacrifice → foundation)

yoga

"yoga; meditation"
↳ Skt. yoga — "union; discipline; meditation"
◆ root | ➜ semantic retention

Analysis of Etymological Patterns

The etymologies reveal several consistent processes through which Sanskrit was adapted into Malay. This is not a random collection of borrowings but a systematic linguistic integration.

Semantic Shifts: The Most Common Process

The majority of words did not retain their original Sanskrit meaning. Instead, they underwent predictable types of semantic change.

Semantic Narrowing (Specialization)

The Malay word takes on a more specific meaning than its Sanskrit root.

acara	"event" < Skt. ācāra "conduct"
cerita	"story" < Skt. carita "conduct, deeds"
kepala	"head" < Skt. kapāla "skull"
siswa	"student" < Skt. śiṣya "disciple"

Semantic Generalization (Broadening)

The Malay word takes on a broader meaning than its Sanskrit root.

benda	"object" < Skt. bhāṇḍa "goods, vessel"
cara	"way, manner" < Skt. ācāra "conduct"
negara	"country" < Skt. nagara "city"

Semantic Reversal

The Malay meaning becomes the opposite of the Sanskrit root, often through irony or a shift in perspective.

bala	"disaster" < Skt. bala "strength, army"
cahaya	"light" < Skt. chāyā "shade"
gembira	"cheerful" < Skt. gambhīra "serious, profound"

Semantic Pejoration

The Malay word acquires a more negative or degraded meaning.

angkara	"cruelty" < Skt. aham-kara "ego"
aniaya	"injustice" < Skt. anyayā "unjustly"
bencana	"calamity" < Skt. vañcana "deception"

Semantic Shift (Metaphor/Metonymy)

The meaning changes to a related but distinct concept, often via metaphor.

asmara	"love" < Skt. smara "recollection"
budaya	"culture" < Skt. bahudeya "generosity"
cinta	"love" < Skt. cintā "anxious thought"
curiga	"suspicion" < Skt. churikā "knife"
daya	"power" < Skt. dayā "mercy"

Grammaticalization

Some words shifted from a lexical (content) word in Sanskrit to a grammatical (function) word in Malay.

atau	"or" < Skt. athavā "or, alternatively"
bagai	"like, as if" < Skt. bhagā "fortune"
bahawa	"that (conj.)" < Skt. bhava "existence"
bila	"when" < Skt. velā "time"
kalau	"if" < Skt. kāla "time"
pada	"at, to" < Skt. pāda "foot"
saja	"only" < Skt. sahaja "natural"
supaya	"so that" < Skt. upāya "means"

Phonetic Shifts

Sound changes were minimal, indicating direct borrowing. The most common shifts involved:

Initial h- drop	Skt. haṃsa (swan) → Malay angsa (goose)
Voicing	Skt. kaṃsa (bronze) → Malay gangsa (bronze)
Liquid shifts	Skt. lalita (lovely) → Malay jelita (lovely)
y → j	Skt. yasas (merit) → Malay jasa (merit)
v → b	Skt. vaidūrya (opal) → Malay baiduri (opal)

Compounding and Affixation

Malay creatively formed new words by compounding Sanskrit roots or adding Malay affixes.

• Sanskrit-Sanskrit Compounds: Most aneka-, maha-, -wan compounds are formed entirely from Sanskrit roots within Malay (e.g., antarā-vamśa for "international," ākāśa-vān for "astronaut").
• Malay Affixation: Words like pencuri (thief) combine the Malay prefix peN- with the Sanskrit root cora. This shows the root had become fully nativized.

Summary Table: Patterns of Semantic Change

Narrowing	Skt. ācāra "conduct"	acara "ceremonial event"
Generalization	Skt. bhāṇḍa "vessel"	benda "object"
Reversal	Skt. chāyā "shade"	cahaya "light"
Pejoration	Skt. aham-kara "ego"	angkara "cruelty"
Metaphor	Skt. churikā "knife"	curiga "suspicion"

References

Bibliography

1. Bhanot.net — Malay-English Dictionary

2. VedaBase.Net, Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network

3. Sanskrit Loan Words in Indonesian / Malaysian — Maintained by Doug Cooper at CRCL

• Malay Words

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